Research: Dyer’s ‘Star Theory’

What is Star Theory?

Richard Dyer's star theory suggests that celebrities are manufactured by institutions for financial gain and that stars are constructed to represent real people and real emotions.

Who is Richard Dyer and what did he say?

Richard Dyer is a British media theorist who believes celebrities are constructed by institutions for financial reasons and target a specific audience. They are constructed through advertising and various marketing techniques - creating a special place in the audience's' lives for the stars.

"A star is an image not a real person that is constructed (as any other aspect of fiction is) out of a range of materials (e.g advertising, magazines etc as well as films [music])." - Dyer, 1979


Difference between performer and pop star

Both terms "performer" and "pop star" have become interchangeable - although there is a distinction. There are those that perform pop music and those who are known for being pop stars - who have an identity or persona aside from their music. Josh Kumra is an example of an artist that is considered a performer rather than a star, this is because of various performances in smaller venues such as O2 Academy Brixton and various hotels. Despite having a number 1 in the UK charts, he tends to appeal to niche audiences and is not really recognised worldwide. On the other hand Drake in an artist that is recognised worldwide, goes on world tours after the release of an album, sells his own merchandise and has won multiple awards for his artistry. He would be considered a pop star as he appeals very highly to mainstream audiences. There are ways for performers to become pop stars with shows such as Britain's Got Talent and The X Factor - One Direction being one of the most successful examples as they went from young boys put into a group and who are now globally recognised, with large mainstream audiences.

Stars as constructions

Stars are constructed as artificial images and usually have a unique selling point. Sometimes these are changes that the artists go through, for example Britney Spears's weight gain, which was criticised by many and this lead her to losing weight again to maintain her construction. As well as this, Miley Cyrus's "drastic" change from an innocent children's show actress and singer to a rebellious teenage type character who performs with minimal clothing on stage and in music videos - the latter however, leading to more controversial attention. Another unique selling point however could be Justin Bieber's iconic bowl haircut, although this has changed as he has grown up and become a much more mainstream artist and may not require much of a unique selling point as he already has an established audience.

Industry and audience

Stars can be manufactured  with the purpose of generating money for the industry, as long as audiences bought the artists records and became loyal fans. Stars are shaped by their label as they are the product of it and they may also produce stars to have long lasting appeal, so fans will be fans for decades down the line and they will not lose their success - therefore not lose any money. Justin Bieber is yet again a great example of this as he continually satisfies his audience and fulfills their expectations.

Ideology and culture

Stars can also represent cultural values and promote certain ideologies, this may enhance their "star quality" and create a persona for them. Michael Jackson was a very popular artist who had referenced race issues with his music, as well as artists now such as Lady Gaga and Macklemore who tackle issues that the LGBT community face - therefore raising awareness and engaging fans with the same issues.

Character and personality

Despite the star being a construct, the construct does have a foundation of realism as stars may attempt to represent "what society should look like" usually due to such a mass following. They may support hegemony - dominant cultural ideology, by conforming it to thin and beautiful or even chubby - but still loveable. Aligning with hegemony we see artists such as Beyonce, Rihanna and Taylor Swift who are seen to have "ideal" bodies and promote their independence as women, encouraging younger girls to have them as their role models. Whereas there are still majorly popular artists who go against the cultural ideology such as Adele, Britney Spears or Aretha Franklin who suggest its fine to be different.

Debate (music vs film)

It can be argued that music artists have the advantage over film stars when being constructed to appeal to a mainstream audience. While film starts rely on screenwriters to produce their lines which is an essential form of creative input, music stars images can be more consistent and longer lasting. Viewers perceptions of film are heavily influenced by the perception of its stars, publicity materials and reviews determine the way audiences experience the film.

Control (how much do they have?)

Music artists are seen to have very little control over their star image as institutions and labels guide and instruct the artists on how to appeal more to audiences and to keep them in the public eye. This in the long term keeps the artist relevant and therefore will allow the artist to keep generating income for the industries. However it is also argued that the artists do have control over their image as they control their bodies and are also able to have surgery if they please to change their appearance. This may not gain a positive reaction from the audience or the press, nonetheless it would still be in the public eye.

Conclude:

Dyer's star theory is vital as it determines an artist's success and how they became so. Their image being constructed can heavily benefit them and the music industry as it relies on audience appeal. If an artist is not constructed they may lack the "full package" that allows them to succeed, therefore will not be represented properly. When creating my music video I will apply Dyer's theory by representing my artist while taking construction, audience, character and personality into consideration as these elements are seen as important for an artists success. My artist will be young and have an appealing persona, the artists clothing will look quite generic and not too "out there" as I want to be able to appeal to a mainstream audience as this will generate the most success.

Research: Genres

Music Video Genres

What are genres?

Genres are a category or style of music, it is usually characterised by the content and the way it is expressed. In the music industry there are a plethora of genres, both mainstream and hybrid, these include; Rap, Rock, Pop, R&B (Rhythm and Blues), Country, EDM (Electronic Dance Music), Classical and Hip-Hop.

List of genres and their conventions

Rap/Hip-Hop - Conventions of Rap/Hip-Hop are that the videos are very glamourous, with a lot of dancers, cars, usually very high key lighting and the artists showing off their wealth. Usually set in inner city urban locations, the artists try and reflect the lifestyle they are living in their music videos. The artists tend to be the dominant character in their videos, with their backup dancers being either their associates or those of the opposite sex. This can lead to the view that rap and hip-hop objectify women as they are usually wearing a lot less clothing while a male artist would be fully clothed and be surrounded by multiple women.

The conventional target audience for this genre male teenagers to adults, roughly around the age of 30 and under, living in inner cities, usually working or middle class. This is because the target audience is a reflection of the artists themselves, or how they used to be. Artists such as Eminem, Jay-Z and Kendrick Lamar regularly address their background in their songs.

Rock - Conventions of Rock are usually a band performing, the artists wearing dark clothing and are usually white males that are older than 30 years old, also may have grown out their hair.
The target audience for this genre is usually males over the age of 18 up until around 50 years old.

Pop - Conventional Pop songs have both male and female artists that are under the age of 30, down to as low as 16 years old, videos are usually colourful and have quite high production value as they are usually very creative, almost like a musical due to the narrative performance that is seen.
Their target audience is teenagers, young adults and adults who enjoy upbeat, visually pleasing music.

R&B - conventions of the R&B genre are male artists, usually with a female counterpart in their videos, dancing, minimal clothing and very simple locations such as a house or a room.
Target audiences for R&B are teenagers and young adults, usually females under the age of 30. The videos are visually appealing and have well bodied male artists that are choreographed well.

Country - country songs are narrative based, usually about a romance which may or may not be about the artist themselves. Lighting is usually very high key and the artists are not showing off their wealth but more likely try to be perceived as "normal people".
Target audience is middle ages male and females that enjoy music that is universal.

House/Dance - Conventions of this genre are repetitive beats with clubbing scenes being shown, women wearing minimal clothing, UV lighting and generally alcohol. This is as house and dance music are usually played in clubs and festivals. Artists are not usually featured in the music videos.
Target audiences for this genre are young adult male and females who are usually of the drinking age and are able to go clubbing, these songs are generally for parties and not really for relaxation.

Jazz - Jazz usually has male artists who play instruments such as, the saxophone, cello or piano. In videos they are dressed quite sharply in suits and may wear hats.
The target audience for this genre are older males and females as they may be more likely to enjoy relaxing music and a calming atmosphere.

Indie - Conventions of indie music are slow and relaxed beats, with picturesque locations in their videos. The artist is usually present in the videos and it may carry a narrative.
The target audience for indie music are young adult male and females who enjoy relaxing instrumentals and distinctive vocals.

Mainstream and Niche genres

Genres can be split into mainstream and niche depending on their popularity and specificity. For example, Hip-hop is a mainstream genre as it can be split into many different genres, interpreted by different artists and producers. Trap music is seen as a branch of hip hop and originates from it, making it a less popular, niche genre. Niche genres are also very specific as Indie may be seen as quite mainstream in recent times, but indie-rock or indie-pop are hybrid niche genres, listened to by less but still its own genre. Target audiences also have an impact on what genres are, mainstream genres are favoured by younger people, while niche audiences are usually older people, this may be because artists focus on public recognition. As there has been a growth in social media over the last decade, younger people are increasingly on social media platforms, therefore they are able to express their views on the different genres of music they like and are more likely to purchase.

The importance of genres for an audience

It is vital for artists to be able to interact and share with their audience, social media has made that very easy in recent times. An artist is able to use social media effectively to understand how their audience feel about their music, therefore making more music that their audience are more likely to buy, increasing profit. According to Twitter, the most tweeted about genres during the grammys were, Rap, rock, pop, kpop, r&b, country, latin and EDM. This shows that some niche genres may be growing and could possibly be becoming more mainstream. As we see artists move from genres such as Justin Bieber who predominately made pop songs, now leans towards providing vocals for EDM and working with artists of that genre such as Skrillex.

Conclusion

In conclusion, genre of songs are very important as to please the audience, it is important for the song to follow conventions of the genre, therefore the audience will be more likely to buy and share the music. As a result of this, I have decided to make my music video following the conventions of the Rap/Hip-hop genre, as this is one of the most popular around the world and has a very broad target audience. Due to this, I believe it will be easier to create something to please the audience as they will have many expectations due to the breadth of the conventions and the meanings behind it.

Research: Goodwin’s Theory

Goodwin's Theory

Andrew Goodwin created a theory to identify the conventions in a music video. Goodwin's theory is easily applied to the majority of mainstream music videos as the features of his theory are evident in most music videos.

The features of Goodwin's Theory include;

• Genre characteristics
• Relationship between lyrics and visuals
• Relationship between music and visuals
• Star image motif's
• Notion of looking
• Intertextual references 
• Performance, narrative or concept based
• Technical elements

Explaining the features of Goodwin's theory

Genre characteristics:

Music videos reflect their genre through certain characteristics and each genre has their own conventions.

Rock - Male dominated genre with dark clothing being conventional, as well as dark themes to the music video.

Hip-Hop - Generally has very expensive materialistic items on display such as super cars and large houses. As well as women dressed provocatively.




R&B - Usually a couple, or just a male dressed with minimal clothing, provocative dancing and lyrics.






Pop - Generally universal music, appealing to a younger audience as well as an older one.

Relationship between lyrics and visuals:

There is a direct visual representation of the lyrics in the music video, this can paint a picture for those watching to define the meaning of the lyrics, or can be contradicting with the exact opposite of the lyrics being shown.

In the music video for Nick Jonas - Chainsaw, there is a direct correlation between the lyrics and the visuals as the character in the music video, acts out what is said in the lyrics. When the singer says "held your body close" we can see the male character holding a female character. Also "I'm gonna break the china" and we observe the character smashing some plates on the ground, thereon we see the character act out what the lyrics say accurately.

Relationship between music and visuals:

There is usually a visual connection with the music, if the music is fast paced and upbeat, the visuals are too; as well as if the music is slow and calming, the visuals will match.

In this video for the song "Calm Down" by G-Eazy we see fast paced editing with many different cuts and edits to the beat, as the song is also at a fast tempo; therefore the visuals match the music.

Star Image Motif's

Many close ups of the artists would be used as the artist is seen as the brand, this would make their appearance more popular and identifiable amongst the audience.

In the video for Katy Perry - Rise, multiple close ups are used to make the audience aware of her appearance and thereby identify with her music.

Notion of looking

Voyeurism and the notion of looking is when the person in the music video, usually the artist is seen as a sex symbol. Another way is from the point of view of the observer, where there is usually direct or indirect address with the audience.

In the video for the song "Closer" by The Chainsmokers, there is a couple seen to be engaging in some sort of foreplay and the females are seen to be wearing minimal clothing.

Intertextual references

Intertextual references are links that music videos portray to events, other films, stories or to iconic people and pictures.

An example of an intertextual reference is in Taylor Swift's "Love Story" video which is strongly connected to William Shakespeare's story of Romeo and Juliet.


Performance, Concept or Narrative?


A music video can either be performance, concept or narrative based and it is highly unlikely for all three to be evident in the video.

In Eminem's video for "Rap God" there is a mixture of concept and performance as the video keeps people entertained and has an unusual concept. Also the artist is present and is performing the song in the video.

Performance

Estelle's "American Boy" solely focuses on the artists performance as there is no specific concept or narrative. Allowing the audience to identify to the song and the lyrics rather than the narrative.

Narrative

Green Day - Wake Me Up When September Ends focuses around a narrative about a young man going to war and leaving his loved one behind.

Concept

Bruno Mars - "24k Magic" is a concept based music video with no specific narrative but a lot of colours and items to draw the audience in.

Technical elements

Technical elements are the micro elements used in a music video, these include, cinematography, editing, sound and mise en scene. All music videos have different technical elements which relate to their genre.

Research: Institutions

Media Institutions

What are media institutions?

Media institutions are companies that control the production and marketing of music recordings and videos. It is vital that a popular artist is signed to a larger record company or label, as bigger companies usually correlate with more successful artists. This is because larger companies have better connections and usually have a better reputation, therefore more people are aware of the music and the music videos these companies release.

What are the main media institutions?

These are some of the largest media institutions in the music industry, according to Nielsen SoundScan around 4 large companies dominate most of the market.

Universal Music Group - One of the largest music companies and dominates around 30% of the market, it is a subsidiary of the media conglomerate Vivendi. Universal identify and develop recording artists and songwriters as well as own and operate businesses engaged in recorded music, music publishing, merchandising and audiovisual content (music videos) in more than 60 countries. Universal own multiple record companies such as Republic records, Island records, Def Jam recordings and Virgin Records. Artists such as Taylor Swift, Lady Gaga, Kanye West and Adele.

Sony Music Entertainment - An American label and company owned by Sony and is the oldest label in the history of the recording history. Labels such as Columbia, Epic, RCA, Syco and Relentless all work as a part of Sony Music. In 2004, Sony Music Entertainment and Bertelsmann Music Group merged to become Sony BMG Music Entertainment, they are now the second largest record company behind Universal Music Group. Artists signed to Sony include, Beyonce, Calvin Harris, and Shakira.

EMI Group Limited - EMI group are a large British music recording company and are a subsidiary of Universal Music Group and Sony/ATV Music Publishing. EMI also own a group of record labels including, Parlophone, Virgin Records and Capitol Records. Artists signed to EMI include, Coldplay, David Guetta, Gorillaz, Snoop Dogg and AC/DC.

Warner Music Group - One of the "big three" recording companies, it was formerly owned by Time Warner. It operates some of the largest and most successful record labels in the world including, Warner Bros Records, Parlophone and Atlantic records.

Advantages and disadvantages of being signed to an institution 

Advantages

• Being backed by a large record company can be very advantageous as they are likely to have connections and have the budget to distribute and advertise music, as opposed to independent artists who mostly have to use their own budget for advertising and distributing.

• A large budget from a record company also means production quality of music videos are a lot better, therefore attracting more fans and more recognition

• An artist can heavily rely on their label to ensure their success due to labels being very selective over who is signed. Not every artist is signed, usually ones that are seen to have potential are.

Disadvantages

• An artist may be limited in terms of what content is featured in their music and what the lyrics are about as labels will make decisions on these. The artists will be restricted from making certain independent decisions as they are usually under a contract.

• If the artist is not as successful as the label anticipated, they may let go of the artist by not renewing their contract, "dropping" them from the label.

• It can be very difficult to get signed to a label as there is a lot of competition in the music industry and no one knows what large institutions are looking for in particular.

Conclusion

In conclusion, different media institutions sign different artists. This can be due to a certain labels preference, or in industry competition, for example if an independent artist is making a lot of sales by themselves, labels may compete to sign that artist as they are aware of the profit it could bring. When I create my music video I will be choosing Universal Music Group. This is because they are the largest record company that exists right now and have previously served many audiences worldwide, gaining positive brand recognition while doing so and being able to globally market their artists, ensuring their success. I believe Universal will be the best company to work with especially with the correct use of synergy, to make my music video a success.

Research: What is a music video?

What is a music video?

A music video is a short film which is accompanied by a song. It is usually produced for promotional or artistic purposes. The music video could be promoting a single for an upcoming album, making the audience aware of more music that will be released. A music video will also gain attraction for the main single as audio tracks are usually released before the music video, therefore boosting sales or making the song more popular in the charts.

What is the purpose of a music video?

Music videos can have many purposes, these include:

To attract and entertain audiences - attracting and entertaining audience can be very important as it gives the artist a lot of attention and it could be vital as a breakthrough artist to reach new audiences.
Post Malone - White Iverson is an example of this as "White Iverson" was one of his first ever singles as an artist and the music video has generated over 209 million views.

To promote an upcoming album - a music video can promote an album by giving a single from the album some visuals, this will allow more people to be aware of the upcoming album and to make the decision of whether to purchase it or not.
An example of this is Justin Bieber - Sorry, which is now one of the most watched videos on Youtube with over 1 billion views, he is already an established artist with a well formed reputation.

To promote a film - Music videos are sometimes made to help promote films, usually these songs are directly from the soundtrack of the film; but also include the artist themselves.
An example of this is Skrillex & Rick Ross - Purple Lamborghini, which was made to promote the movie "Suicide Squad". It was released on the same day as the film. This is an example of a good use of synergy as the music video would help promote the film, and the film, the music artist.

For publicity  - Music videos can also generate a lot of controversy due to the nature of them, many news outlets will report about them and the artist will gain a lot of attention.
An example of this is Kanye West - Famous, a highly controversial video which features wax figures of many nude celebrities. This caught the eye of many news outlets and gained a lot of attention amongst the mass media. Kanye West uses his controversy as his unique selling point, he is known to attract attention from the media and he surprised audiences with a distinct video such as this one.

For product placement - Some artists may use their music videos for product placement to advertise a company they are partnered with or own. This is because they know their video will generate a lot of views and will be used as an effective advertising tool.
This is evident in 50 cent - I'm The Man, where there are multiple shots of his vodka brand, Effen Vodka.

To send a message -  Music videos can be used by artists to convey a message, whether the subject being something personal or current affairs.
An example of this is Michael Jackson - Black or White, which was set to promote racial harmony.

Conventions of a music video

Dancing - Dancing is a popular and very common convention in a music video as it is a form of entertainment and the artist is usually involved in the dance, supported by backup dancers.

Narrative - Many music videos have narratives as they are essentially short films, the song usually carries the most important parts of the story, although it may have a beginning middle and end part without music.

Lip Syncing - Lip syncing is one of the most common conventions as artists usually perform in their music video to make it seem like they are singing throughout the video.

Artist's presence - An artist's presence is as common as lip syncing, rarely will there be music videos with artists that are not lip syncing. This is to make the audience aware of who the artist is and what they look like.

Lady Gaga - Telephone (2009)

Psy - Gangnam Style (2012)

Special effects - Special effects are sometimes used as a form of entertainment for audiences, making the music video look and feel more like a movie or a major production.

Editing - Editing is a very common convention as it makes the music video look very professional, For example editing to the beat of a song requires a lot of skill and is difficult to pull off, especially on a fast paced song.

Synergy

Synergy can be used effectively to promote a music video, thereby promoting the upcoming album or film. Various forms of media can be used such as tv, radio, newspapers and social media.

Examples of synergy: Drake promoting his album "Views" with various appearances and performing singles.

Drake on "The Tonight Show with Jimmy Fallon"

Drake on HOT97

Drake on the cover of The FADER

Drake promoted the trailer for his new album, views, which was first posted onto Twitter, followed by other social media platforms.

Audience impact

The impact a music video has on an audience depends on how they view the music video.
Music videos may influence audience's opinions on the artist, depending on whether they see the music video in a positive light or not. This would also affect audience's enjoyment of the music.

An upbeat or positive song could lead the audience to have a positive view of the artist, therefore being more likely to sell albums as well as the single.

Mark Ronson ft. Bruno Mars - Uptown Funk (2014)

Another impact a music video could have on the audience is an emotional response. This does not necessarily have to negative as a lot of people enjoy listening to sad, slower songs. An example of this is Green Day- Wake Me Up When September Ends, which is a song about people fighting in wars and the impact it has on their loved ones.

Music videos can also have a negative impact on people, usually due to the controversy of the lyrics or the content of the music video itself. An example of this is Robin Thicke - Blurred Lines, which gained a lot of media attention as well as the song being banned in various UK university campuses. The song contained lines such as "I know you want it" and some outlets claimed it promoted rape culture. The video featured a number of barely clothed and topless women dancing around men who are fully clothed. Robin Thicke's following album had flopped commercially, possibly suggesting a correlation to the way one of his most popular videos was viewed.

Technology advancements

Increasing technological advancements have led to the improvements of music videos in many ways, these include:

• Higher quality videos, with the introduction of High definition as well as 4k, audience enjoyment of music videos is increased as they are able to experience videos in better quality. 

• There has also been an increase in availability in terms of music videos, there are more websites and smartphone apps to watch music videos on. MTV and Vevo are examples of places you can watch music videos on.

• Artists are also able to release music videos onto streaming services such as Spotify or Apple music, making more people aware of their music and therefore more likely to search for a music video.

• Social media plays a large part in sharing music videos, places such as Facebook or Twitter with millions of users daily, making social media great platforms for advertising music, usually at a very low cost.

• Technological advancements have allowed people to access music videos from around the globe with ease, sites such as Youtube with their like/dislike system has allowed users to base their opinion on videos. As shown with Justin Bieber - Baby which is the most disliked video on Youtube, with 6.7 million dislikes.

- Threats caused by technology advancements

Technological advancements mean that it is easier for independent artists to record and distribute their music, which in the long term may be seen as a threat by mainstream artists.

Digital music streaming services such as Spotify and Apple Music allow people to listen to music while on the move, this means certain audiences will be less likely to watch music videos, ultimately reducing profit for music videos.

Easier access to "explicit" versions of music videos, such as on applications such as Youtube puts younger and vulnerable audiences at risk, making people dislike artists or certain music videos.


The future of music videos

Certain technological advancements have made it a lot easier for audiences to listen to music without watching music videos, this would reduce the profit of music videos and may make people lose interest in music videos. More recently there has been a lot less money spent on making music videos, this is due to the rise of websites such as Youtube and Vevo, therefore production quality is a lot less. According to Forbes, the most expensive music video is "Scream" by Michael Jackson and Janet Jackson, which cost $7 Million at the time.

Conclusion

Overall, music videos are a crucial part of an artists success as this is one of the ways an artist can provide an audience with another form of entertainment other than audio.